30 March 2008

Hatshepsut - Firaun Wanita

Hatshepsut (kadang-kala dieja Hatchepsut yang bermaksud Wanita Bangsawan Terulung) adalah firaun kelima dari Dinasti ke-18 di Mesir purba. Para Egiptologi umumnya menganggap baginda sebagai salah seorang firaun perempuan yang paling berjaya di Mesir, yang memerintah lebih lama daripada pemerintah perempuan manapun dalam sesebuah dinasti asal.

Hatshepsut dipercayai pernah memerintah sebagai salah seorang pemerintah dari sekitar 1479 hingga 1458 SM (Tahun ke-7 hingga ke-21 Thutmose III). Baginda dianggap sebagai permaisuri yang memeirntah yang paling awal dikenali dalam sejarah dan perempuan kedua yang diketahui menaiki takhta sebagai "Raja Mesir Hulu dan Hilir" setelah Permaisuri Sobekneferu dari Dinasti ke-12.

Pada 27 Jun 2007, sebuah mumia dalam makam KV60 di Lembah Raja-raja dikenalpasti sebagai Hatshepsut.

6000 Mati Akibat Kawat Kematian Sandakan

24 Oktober 1945. Kem tahanan perang Sandakan.
Beberapa bulan selepas ia ditinggalkan dan dimusnahkan
oleh tentera Jepun, tidak banyak yang tinggal di kem
yang dibakar itu. Dalam kawasan halaman No. 1 (gambar) kubur
mengandungi mayat 300 tahanan Australia dan British dijumpai.
Mereka dipercayai tahanan yang tinggal di kem selepas siri kawad kedua
ke Ranau. Setiap kubur mengandungi beberapa mayat, dalam
sesetengah kes sehingga 10 mayat. (Jurugambar: Frank Burke.)

Kawat Kematian Sandakan adalah kejadian paling buruk diketahui dalam siri kejadian yang mengakibatkan kematian sehingga 6,000 orang awam hamba kerahan Indonesia dan tahanan perang pihak Berikat, yang ditahan oleh Empayar Jepun semasa Perang Pasifik semasa Perang Dunia II, di kem penjara di Borneo Utara. Dari keseluruhan tahanan yang ditawan di kem tersebut semasa perbarisan, hanya 6 yang diketahui terselamat selepas perperangan.

Pada 1942, orang awam Indonesia, diimport dari pulau Jawa, bersama tahanan perang Australia dan British, yang telah ditahan semasa kejatuhan Singapura, dihantar melalui kapal ke Borneo Utara, untuk membina padang terbang di Sandakan. Seperti pada landasan kereta api Burma, tahanan dipaksa bekerja keras dengan diacukan senapang kepada mereka, sering dipukul dan tidak menerima makanan serta ubatan yang cukup. Mereka terus ditahan walaupun kerja pembinaan telah siap. Ramai yang mati. Pada awal 1945, apabila Pihak Berikat makin hampir, komandan kem Kapten Susumi Hoshijima memutuskan untuk memindahkan baki tahanan ke pedalaman di Ranau, kira-kira 250 kilometer (160 batu).

Tahanan Australia dan Indonesia ini telah dikerah oleh tentera Jepun untuk berjalan dari Sandakan di pantai timur ke Kota Kinabalu di pantai barat. Dalam perjalanan tersebut, lebih 1000 orang telah maut akibat keletihan, kebuluran dan penyakit. Sebagai memperingati peristiwa ini, kerajaan Australia telah mendirikan Tugu Peringatan perang bertempat di Kundasang Ranau.

Cendawan Juga Beracun

Cendawan Amanita muscaria yang beracun dan bewarna terang.

Cendawan ialah sejenis kulat yang tumbuh di atas tanah atau sumber nutriennya. Cendawan yang dikenali ramai ialah cendawan butang (Agaricus bisporus), yang berbatang pendek dan bahagian atasnya berbentuk payung atau cuping. Namun banyak lagi cendawan yang berbentuk lain.

Cendawan turut diiktiraf sebagai herba yang berguna pada manusia. Sesetengahnya tumbuh meliar manakala sesetengah lagi ditanam oleh manusia sebagai makanan serta untuk perubatan. Kajian mendapati cendawan boleh mengurangkan kandungan gula dan menambah insulin di dalam darah, membunuh beberapa jenis virus yang membawa penyakit berjangkit dan turut berperanan sebagai agen mempertahankan badan dari serangan barah. Terdapat juga cendawan yang beracun.

Cendawan boleh digunakan secara segar seperti dimakan sebagai sayur. Selain itu pada masa sekarang kebanyakan cendawan ini telah dijadikan serbuk didalam bentuk kapsul. Ini untuk memudahkan para pengguna kerana cendawan yang segar agak terhad di dalam pasaran.

Terowong Selat Terpanjang Di Dunia

Terowong Selat (Bahasa Inggeris: Channel Tunnel) merupakan satu terowong kereta api sepanjang 51.5 km (31 batu) di bawah Selat Inggeris di Selat Dover. Ia menyambungkan Folkestone, Kent di England dengan Coquelles dekat Calais di utara Perancis.

Terowong ini merupakan satu projek mega lama dan mahal yang terhenti beberapa kali, sebelum akhirnya siap pada 1994. Ia merupakan terowong kereta api kedua terpanjang di dunia, cuma Terowong Seikan di Jepun lebih panjang, namun bahagian bawah lautnya sepanjang 39 km (24 batu) adalah terowong bawah laut terpanjang di dunia. Terowong ini dijalankan oleh Eurotunnel.

Patung Raksasa Rhodes : 7 Keajaiban Dunia Zaman Purba

Patung Raksasa Rhodes merupakan sebuah patung besar yang melambangkan tuhan Yunani purba Helios yang terletak di Rhodes, iaitu sebuah pulau Yunani. Patung ini didirikan oleh Chares dari Lindos antara 292 dan 280 SM dan merupakan salah satu daripada Tujuh Keajaiban Dunia zaman purba. Patung Raksasa Rhodes berdiri setinggi 30 meter dan diperbuat daripada gangsa. Namun, selepas 56 tahun dibina, patung ini musnah akibat gempa bumi pada 226 SM.

Rumah Api Iskandariah : 7 Keajaiban Dunia Zaman Purba


Rumah Api Iskandariah ataupun (Pharos Iskandariah) merupakan sebuah rumah api yang dibina pada abad ke-3 SM di pulau Pharos berhampiran dengan kota Iskandariah purba, Mesir purba. Ketinggiannya dianggar melebihi 115 meter dan merupakan antara struktur tertinggi ciptaan manusia selama beratus-ratus tahun. Antipater dari Sidon telah menyenaraikannya dalam senarai Tujuh Keajaiban Dunianya.

Kawasan pesisiran pantai merupakan tanah rata dan kurang sesuai sebagai pelabuhan kerana tidak mempunyai panduan unutk pedagang dan pelayar. Oleh itu, sebuah rumah api yang dilengkapkan dengan api dan cermin pantulan telah dibina.

Bangunan rumah api direka oleh Sostratus dari Snidus atas arahan Satrap (Gabenor) Ptolemy I, seorang panglima Iskandar Agung. Selepas Iskandar meninggal dunia, Ptolemy mengisytiharkan diri sebagai raja baru dan mengarahkan pembinaan bangunan rumah api. Bangunan ini disiapkan semasa pemerintahan anakandanya, Ptolemy II Philadelphus.

Menurut legenda, Sostratus dihalang oleh Ptolemy meletakkan namanya di bangunan. Namun, Sostratus juga mengukir namanya di tapak bangunan itu, serta inskripsi: Sostratus, anak Dexiphanes dari Cnidia membaktikan bangunan ini kepada tuhan-tuhan, bagi pihak pelayar dan penelajah. Inskripsi itu disorokkan di bawah selapis plaster, dan di bahagian luarnya tertulis satu lagi inskripsi mengagungkan Ptolemy.

Cerita-cerita dongeng pula menyatakan bahawa rumah api ini dapat dilihat dari jarak sejauh 56 km. Bangunan ini dibina menggunakan batu berwarna muda dan mempunyai tiga bahagian: bahagian segi empat tepat bawah dengan teras pusat, bahagian lapan sisi tengah dan bahagian bulat atas. Sebuah cermin besar yang memantul cahaya matahari diletakkan di mercunya, manakala api digunakan pada waktu malam. Berhala Poseidon didirikan di puncaknya pada zaman Empayar Rom.

Dinding bangunan mampu menahan lambakan air laut. Bangunan ini berdiri kukuh dan merupakan antara tujuh keajaiban terakhir (kecuali Piramid Agung Kufu) yang roboh.

Setem Direka Pada 1840


Setem pemposan julung kali diperkenalkan di United Kingdom pada bulan Mei 1840 sebagai sebahagian rombakan perkhidmatan pos pimpinan Rowland Hill. Oleh itu yuran pos mula dibayar oleh pengirim dan bukannya penerima seperti sebelum itu, namun mengirim secara prabayar bukanlah wajib. Setem pos pertama, Penny Black julung kali dikeluarkan pada 1 Mei bagi kegunaan mulai 6 Mei, dan dua hari kemudian, Two pence blue, dengan ukiran Ratu Victoria yang muda, merupakan kejayaan besar, namun penapisan seperti tebukan tepi hanya digunakan bagi setem yang diterbitkan tidak lama kemudian.

Negara-negara lain turut mencontohi UK dengan memakai sistem setem; Kanton Zürich di Switzerland menghasilkan setem 4 dan 6 rappen Zurich; meskipun Penny Black boleh digunakan untuk menghantar mana-mana surat yang beratnya kurang 15 gram dalam United Kingdom, perkhidmatan pos Switzerland masih mengira kadar pos berdasarkan jarak pengiriman. Brazil mengeluarkan setem Mata Lembu (Bull's Eyes) pada tahun 1843, menggunakan mesin cetak yang sama seperti yang digunakan untuk Penny Black. Kerajaan Brazil memilih rekabentuk abstrak dan bukannya gambar Maharaja Pedro II agar imej baginda tidak dicacatkan oleh cop pos. Pada tahun 1845 sebilangan pegawai pos di Amerika Syarikat menghasilkan setem sendiri, tetapi setem yang pertama kali dikeluarkan secara rasmi muncul pada tahun 1847, dengan setem 5 dan 10 sen yang menampilkan potret Benjamin Franklin dan George Washington. Sebilangan negara lain mengeluarkan setem sendiri pada akhir 1840-an, tetapi banyak lagi negara lain memulakan sistem setem pada 1850-an dan menjelang 1860-an kebanyakan negara di dunia sudah menghasilkan setem pos.

Semenjak lahirnya setem pos di United Kingdom bilangan surat yang dikirim naik mendadak dari 82 juta pada tahun 1839 ke 170 juta pada tahun 1841. Hari ini purata 21 bilion benda dikirim melalui pos setiap tahun di UK sahaja.
Setem pemposan julung kali diperkenalkan di United Kingdom pada bulan Mei 1840 sebagai sebahagian rombakan perkhidmatan pos pimpinan Rowland Hill. Oleh itu yuran pos mula dibayar oleh pengirim dan bukannya penerima seperti sebelum itu, namun mengirim secara prabayar bukanlah wajib. Setem pos pertama, Penny Black julung kali dikeluarkan pada 1 Mei bagi kegunaan mulai 6 Mei, dan dua hari kemudian, Two pence blue, dengan ukiran Ratu Victoria yang muda, merupakan kejayaan besar, namun penapisan seperti tebukan tepi hanya digunakan bagi setem yang diterbitkan tidak lama kemudian.

Negara-negara lain turut mencontohi UK dengan memakai sistem setem; Kanton Zürich di Switzerland menghasilkan setem 4 dan 6 rappen Zurich; meskipun Penny Black boleh digunakan untuk menghantar mana-mana surat yang beratnya kurang 15 gram dalam United Kingdom, perkhidmatan pos Switzerland masih mengira kadar pos berdasarkan jarak pengiriman. Brazil mengeluarkan setem Mata Lembu (Bull's Eyes) pada tahun 1843, menggunakan mesin cetak yang sama seperti yang digunakan untuk Penny Black. Kerajaan Brazil memilih rekabentuk abstrak dan bukannya gambar Maharaja Pedro II agar imej baginda tidak dicacatkan oleh cop pos. Pada tahun 1845 sebilangan pegawai pos di Amerika Syarikat menghasilkan setem sendiri, tetapi setem yang pertama kali dikeluarkan secara rasmi muncul pada tahun 1847, dengan setem 5 dan 10 sen yang menampilkan potret Benjamin Franklin dan George Washington. Sebilangan negara lain mengeluarkan setem sendiri pada akhir 1840-an, tetapi banyak lagi negara lain memulakan sistem setem pada 1850-an dan menjelang 1860-an kebanyakan negara di dunia sudah menghasilkan setem pos.

Semenjak lahirnya setem pos di United Kingdom bilangan surat yang dikirim naik mendadak dari 82 juta pada tahun 1839 ke 170 juta pada tahun 1841. Hari ini purata 21 bilion benda dikirim melalui pos setiap tahun di UK sahaja.

Tompok Merah Pada Planet Musytari Sebenarnya Ribut.

Animasi menunjukkan pergerakan jalur-jalur atmosfera, dan pengolakan Tompok Merah Besar.
Imej NASA.

Tompok Merah Besar adalah sebuah antisiklon ribut di atas permukaan planet Musytari, 22° selatan dari khatulistiwa, yang tahan selama 178 tahun-tahun dan sepanjang 343 tahun atau lebih. Ribut itu cukupnya besar untuk dilihat dari teleskop berasaskan Bumi. Ribut pertamanya diperhatikan oleh Giovanni Domenico Cassini, yang menggambarkannya pada 1665. Tompok itu berwarna merah menerusi sejarah pemerhatian, tetapi tidak berwarna merah dalam spektrum nyata sejak tempoh singkat pada tengah 1970-an.

Ribut-ribut seperti ini tidak sama dalam pergolakan atmosfera gergasi gas. Musytari juga mempunyai bujur-bujur putih dan perang, yang adalah ribut-ribut lemah tidak dinamakan. Bujur-bujur putih dibuat dari terdiri daripada awan-awan sejuk di atmosfera tinggi. Bujur-bujur perang adalah panas dan diletak dalam lapis awan biasa. Ribut-ribut sama boleh tahan jam dan abad.

Sebelum misi-misi Voyager, ahli-ahli astronomi tidak sedar sifat-sifat Tompok Merah. Banyak memercayai bahawa ia adalah ciri pepejal atau cecair di atas permukaan Musytari.

Saiz Organ (alat muzik) Boleh Mencapai Sehingga Lima Tingkat Tingginya.

Organ di Katedral Lublin, Poland.
Organ (bahasa Greek όργανον - organon, "organ, alat, peralatan") ialah alat muzik keyboard yang dimain dengan bod pedal, dan satu atau lebih keyboard manual.

Ia mempergunakan salah satu daripada dua cara untuk menghasilkan bunyi yang tetap dan tidak terputus-putus semasa kekunci ditekan, iaitu: menyalurkan angin ke dalam paip yang diperbuat daripada logam atau kayu; dan/atau menggunakan pengayun atau bunyi organ tersampel. Bunyinya yang berbeza-beza dari segi timbre dan kelantangannya, dibahagikan menurut tingkat dan dikawal dengan menggunakan penghenti. Keyboardnya tidak ekspresi dan tidak mempengaruhi dinamik.

Saiz organ amat berbeza dari seela persegi sehingga lima tingkat tingginya. Ia ditempatkan terutamanya di gereja, dewan konsert dan rumah. Organ merupakan salah satu alat muzik tertua dalam tradisi muzik Barat, dan membawa sejarah sembahyang Kristian dan istiadat awam yang kaya.

Petrol Asalnya Digunakan Untuk Rawatan Kutu

Sebelum enjin pembakaran dalaman dicipta pada pertengahan abad ke-19, minyak petrol dijual di dalam botol kecil sebagai rawatan terhadap kutu dan telurnya. Pada masa tersebut, perkataan Petrol merupakan satu cap dagangan. Rawatan sebegini tidak lagi digunakan berikutan risiko kebakaran dan dermatitis

Di A.S., petrol juga dijual sebagak cecair pembersih kesan minyak dan gris pada baju. Sebelum stesen minyak didirikan, pemandu kereta membeli minyak petrol di dalam tin untuk mengisi tangki minyak mereka.

Nama gasolin pada masa tersebut merujuk kepada satu lagi hasil petroleum iaitu petrolatum, yang diniagakan dengan nama Vaseline. Cap dagangan Gasoline, walau bagaimanapun, tidak pernah didaftarkan, maka ia menjadi istilah umum. Petrol juga digunakan di dapur serta sebagai bahan api pelita dan dapur mudah alih.

Semasa Perang Franco-Prussia (1870–1871), pétrole dikumpulkan di Paris untuk kegunaan bagi menentang serangan Jerman-Prussia di bandar raya berkenaan. Lama kemudian pada tahun 1871, semasa revolusi Paris Commune, khabar angin tersebar di serata bandar raya mengenai pétroleuses, perempuan yang menggunakan bom petrol untuk menyebabkan kemusnahan di bangunan-bangunan.

Bangunan Di Bina Untuk Suka-Suka

Menara isyarat Broadway
Tower
, Worcestershire, England


Dalam seni bina, folly (bahasa Inggeris: folly) merupakan satu bangunan yang mewah, untuk suka-suka dan aneh, direka lebih untuk penyataan seni berbanding praktikal.

Pada mulanya, struktur sebegini sering digelar "Folly [nama arkitek atau jurubina]", bersempena individu yang mengkehendaki atau mereka projek tersebut (contohnya kompleks besar oleh Ferdinand Cheval). Perkataan "folly" diambil dari maksud perkataan "kebodohan, keseronokan atau suka-suka" (foolishness, fun or light-heartedness).

Namun, folly yang langsung tiada tujuan praktikal yang amat kurang. Selain dari aspek perhiasan, kebanyakan folly mempunyai tujuan yang kemudian tidak diingati lagi, contohnya seperti menara perburuan. Mengikut The Folly Fellowship, satu pertubuhan amal untuk folly, folly merupakan satu struktur yang sering disalahfahami.

29 March 2008

Tanglung : Alat Pelindung Lilin Daripada Angin



Tanglung merupakan sejenis alat pelindung yang melindungi lilin dari tiupan angin ketika berjalan pada waktu malam. Ia merupakan salah satu benda penting dalam kebudayaan Cina dan telah menjadi salah satu unsur kebudayaan masyarakat Cina semenjak tahun 250 SM lagi.

22 March 2008

Sejarah Laser


Pencipta:- Gordon Gould, Charles Townes, Arthur Schawlow, Theodore Maiman Nama

LASER
adalah satu akronim untuk Light Amplification by the Stimulated Emission of Radiation. Dalam 1917,Albert Einstein pertama membuat teori tentang tentang laser bernama "Stimulated Emission."

Maser kemudian Laser

Dalam 1954, Charles Townes dan Arthur Schawlow palsu maser (microwave amplification by stimulated emission of radiation), menggunakan gas ammonia dan sinaran mikrogelombang - maser telah direka terlebih dahulu sebelum (optikal) laser.

Di Mac 24, 1959, Charles Townes dan Arthur Schawlow telah mereka satu paten untuk maser. Maser telah digunakan untuk meluaskan isyarat-isyarat radio dan merupakan satu ultrasensitive pengesan untuk penyelidikan angkasa.

Dalam 1958, Charles Townes dan Arthur Schawlow membuat teori dan pencetak kertas kira-kira satu laser dapat dilihat, satu ciptaan yang menggunakan inframerah dan / atau cahaya spektrum boleh dilihat, bagaimanapun, mereka tidak dapat meneruskan dengan penyelidikan pada masa itu.

Bahan-bahan lain banyak boleh digunakan sebagai laser. Sesetengah, suka laser delima, mengeluarkan pendek nadi cahaya laser. Lain-lain, seperti helium neon laser udara atau laser pewarna cecair mengeluarkan satu pancaran cahaya yang berterusan. Melihat -Bagaimana Laser berfungsi

Laser Delima

Dalam 1960, Theodore Maiman palsu Laser Delima (Ruby Laser) dianggap menjadi yang pertama berjaya optikal atau laser cahaya.

Gordon Gould - Laser

Gordon Gould merupakan orang yang pertama menggunakan perkataan "laser". Gould adalah seorang pelajar kedoktoran di Columbia University Charles Townes , pencipta maser. Dia gagal untuk mendaftarkan tuntutan satu paten ciptaannya sehingga 1959. Hasilnya, Gordon Gould jelas telah ditolak dan teknologinya adalah dieksploitasikan oleh orang-orang lain. Ia telah mengambil sehingga 1977 untuk Gordon Gould untuk akhirnya menang dia perang paten dan menerima dia paten pertama untuk laser.

Laser Udara

Laser gas pertama (neon helium) telah direka oleh Ali Javan pada 1960. Laser udara merupakan yang pertama cahaya berterusan laser dan pertama untuk beroperasi "atas prinsip menukar tenaga elektrik untuk laser cahaya."

Robert Dewan - Laser Suntikan Semikonduktor

Dalam 1962,Robert Dewan tercipta satu jenis yang revolusioner laser iaitu masih digunakan dalam banyak peralatan elektronik dan sistem-sistem komunikasi yang kita menggunakan setiap hari.

Source From :- http://inventors.about.com/od/lstartinventions/a/laser.htm

History of Paper Clip



The fastening of papers has been historical referenced to as early as the 13th century, when people put ribbon through parallel incisions in the upper left hand corner of pages. Later people started to wax the ribbons to make them stronger and easier to undo and redo. This was the way people clipped papers together for the next six hundred years. In 1835, a New York physician named John Ireland Howe invented a machine for mass producing straight pins. Straight pins then became a popular way to fasten papers together, although they were not originally designed for that purpose. Straight pins were designed to be used in sewing and tailoring, to temporally fasten cloth together. Johan Vaaler patentJohan Vaaler, a Norwegian inventor with a degree in electronics, science and mathematics, invented the paperclip in 1899. He received a patent for his design from Germany in 1899, since Norway had no patent laws at that time. Johan Vaaler was an employee at a local invention office when he invented the paperclip. He received an American patent in 1901 -- patent abstract "It consists of forming same of a spring material, such as a piece of wire, that is bent to a rectangular, triangular, or otherwise shaped hoop, the end parts of which wire piece form members or tongues lying side by side in contrary directions." Johan Vaaler was the first person to patent a paperclip design, although other unpatented designs might have existed first. American inventor, Cornelius J. Brosnan filed for an American patent for a paperclip in 1900. He called his invention the "Konaclip". William Middlebrook patented a machine for making Gem paper clipsBut it was a company called the Gem Manufacturing Ltd. of England who first designed the double oval shaped standard looking paperclip. This familiar and famous paperclip, was and still is referred to as the "Gem" clip. William Middlebrook, of Waterbury, Connecticut, patented a machine for making paper clips of the Gem design in 1899. The Gem paperclip was never patented. People have been re-inventing the paperclip over and over again. The designs that have been the most successful are the "Gem" with it's double oval shape, the "Non-Skid" which held in place well, the "Ideal" used for thick wads of paper, and the "Owl" the paperclip that did not get tangled up with other paperclips. note: During World War II, Norwegians were prohibited from wearing any buttons with the likeness or initials of their king on them. In protest they started wearing paperclips, because paperclips were a Norwegian invention whose original function was to bind together. This was a protest against the Nazi occupation and wearing a paperclip could have gotten you arrested.

The fastening of papers has been historical referenced to as early as the 13th century, when people put ribbon through parallel incisions in the upper left hand corner of pages. Later people started to wax the ribbons to make them stronger and easier to undo and redo. This was the way people clipped papers together for the next six hundred years.



In 1835, a New York physician named John Ireland Howe invented a machine for mass producing straight pins. Straight pins then became a popular way to fasten papers together, although they were not originally designed for that purpose. Straight pins were designed to be used in sewing and tailoring, to temporally fasten cloth together.

Johan Vaaler patentJohan Vaaler, a Norwegian inventor with a degree in electronics, science and mathematics, invented the paperclip in 1899. He received a patent for his design from Germany in 1899, since Norway had no patent laws at that time. Johan Vaaler was an employee at a local invention office when he invented the paperclip. He received an American patent in 1901 -- patent abstract "It consists of forming same of a spring material, such as a piece of wire, that is bent to a rectangular, triangular, or otherwise shaped hoop, the end parts of which wire piece form members or tongues lying side by side in contrary directions." Johan Vaaler was the first person to patent a paperclip design, although other unpatented designs might have existed first.

American inventor, Cornelius J. Brosnan filed for an American patent for a paperclip in 1900. He called his invention the "Konaclip".

William Middlebrook patented a machine for making Gem paper clipsBut it was a company called the Gem Manufacturing Ltd. of England who first designed the double oval shaped standard looking paperclip. This familiar and famous paperclip, was and still is referred to as the "Gem" clip. William Middlebrook, of Waterbury, Connecticut, patented a machine for making paper clips of the Gem design in 1899. The Gem paperclip was never patented.

People have been re-inventing the paperclip over and over again. The designs that have been the most successful are the "Gem" with it's double oval shape, the "Non-Skid" which held in place well, the "Ideal" used for thick wads of paper, and the "Owl" the paperclip that did not get tangled up with other paperclips.

NOTE: During World War II, Norwegians were prohibited from wearing any buttons with the likeness or initials of their king on them. In protest they started wearing paperclips, because paperclips were a Norwegian invention whose original function was to bind together. This was a protest against the Nazi occupation and wearing a paperclip could have gotten you arrested.
Plastic Forks
Morgue Files

Timeline of Plastics

The First Man-Made Plastic - Parkesine

The first man-made plastic was created by Alexander Parkes who publicly demonstrated it at the 1862 Great International Exhibition in London. The material called Parkesine was an organic material derived from cellulose that once heated could be molded, and retained its shape when cooled.

Celluloid

Celluloid is derived from cellulose and alcoholized camphor. John Wesley Hyatt invented celluloid as a substitute for the ivory in billiard balls in 1868. He first tried using collodion a natural substance, after spilling a bottle of it and discovering that the material dried into a tough and flexible film. However, the material was not strong enough to be used as a billiard ball, until the addition of camphor, a derivative of the laurel tree. The new celluloid could be molded with heat and pressure into a durable shape.

Besides billiard balls, celluloid became famous as the first flexible photographic film used for still photography and motion pictures. John Wesley Hyatt created celluloid in a strip format for movie film. By 1900, movie film was an exploding market for celluloid.

Formaldehyde Resins - Bakelite

After cellulose nitrate, formaldehyde was the next product to advance the technology of plastic. Around 1897, efforts to manufacture white chalkboards led to casein plastics (milk protein mixed with formaldehyde) Galalith and Erinoid are two early tradename examples.

In 1899, Arthur Smith received British Patent 16,275, for "phenol-formaldehyde resins for use as an ebonite substitute in electrical insulation", the first patent for processing a formaldehyde resin. However, in 1907, Leo Hendrik Baekeland improved phenol-formaldehyde reaction techniques and invented the first fully synthetic resin to become commercially successful, tradenamed Bakelite.

Timeline - Precursors

  • 1839 - Natural Rubber - method of processing invented by Charles Goodyear
  • 1843 - Vulcanite - Thomas Hancock
  • 1843 - Gutta-Percha - William Montgomerie
  • 1856 - Shellac - Alfred Critchlow, Samuel Peck
  • 1856 - Bois Durci - Francois Charles Lepag

Timeline - Beginning of the Plastic Era with Semi Synthetics

  • 1839 - Polystyrene or PS discovered - Eduard Simon
  • 1862 - Parkesine - Alexander Parkes
  • 1863 - Cellulose Nitrate or Celluloid - John Wesley Hyatt
  • 1872 - Polyvinyl Chloride or PVC - first created by Eugen Baumann
  • 1894 - Viscose Rayon - Charles Frederick Cross, Edward John Bevan

Timeline - Thermosetting Plastics and Thermoplastics

  • 1908 - Cellophane - Jacques E. Brandenberger
  • 1909 - First true plastic Phenol-Formaldehyde tradenamed Bakelite- Leo Hendrik Baekeland
  • 1926 - Vinyl or PVC - Walter Semon invented a plasticized PVC.
  • 1927 - Cellulose Acetate
  • 1933 - Polyvinylidene chloride or Saran also called PVDC - accidentally discovered by Ralph Wiley, a Dow Chemical lab worker.
  • 1935 - Low-density polyethylene or LDPE - Reginald Gibson and Eric Fawcett
  • 1936 - Acrylic or Polymethyl Methacrylate
  • 1937 - Polyurethanes tradenamed Igamid for plastics materials and Perlon for fibers. - Otto Bayer and co-workers discovered and patented the chemistry of polyurethanes
  • 1938 - Polystyrene made practical
  • 1938 - Polytetrafluoroethylene or PTFE tradenamed Teflon - Roy Plunkett
  • 1939 - Nylon and Neoprene considered a replacement for silk and a synthetic rubber respectively Wallace Hume Carothers
  • 1941 - Polyethylene Terephthalate or Pet - Whinfield and Dickson
  • 1942 - Low Density Polyethylene
  • 1942 - Unsaturated Polyester also called PET patented by John Rex Whinfield and James Tennant Dickson
  • 1951 - High-density polyethylene or HDPE tradenamed Marlex - Paul Hogan and Robert Banks
  • 1951 - Polypropylene or PP - Paul Hogan and Robert Banks
  • 1953 - Saran Wrap introduced by Dow Chemicals.
  • 1954 - Styrofoam the trademarked form of polystyrene foam insulation, invented by Ray McIntire for Dow Chemicals
  • 1964 - Polyimide
  • 1970 - Thermoplastic Polyester this includes trademarked Dacron, Mylar, Melinex, Teijin, and Tetoron
  • 1978 - Linear Low Density Polyethylene
  • 1985 - Liquid Crystal Polymers
Source From :- http://inventors.about.com/od/pstartinventions/a/plastics.htm

Andy Warhol - Art Collection

Andy Warhol, Camouflage, 1986

The art collection of The Andy Warhol Museum includes over 4,000 works in all media -- paintings, drawings, prints, photographs, sculptures, and installation. The collection provides an in-depth view of every period of the artist's creative life, from the 1940s to the 1980s.

Highlights of the collection include student works from Warhol's years at Carnegie Tech (now Carnegie Mellon University); commercial art and sketchbook drawings from his early years in New York City; masterpieces of Pop art, such as his portraits of Marilyn, Liz, Elvis, Campbell's Soup Cans, Brillo Boxes and Flowers, and Cow wallpaper and Silver Clouds; examples of great series, such as his paintings on the subject of Death in America, Maos, Skulls, and Rorshach; commissioned portraits and photographs from the 1970s and 80s; and monumental late works--including hand-painted representations of popular imagery, collaborations with the young artist Jean-Michel Basquiat, and the Last Supper and Camouflage series. Punctuating this collection are Warhol's self-portraits from throughout his career.

The Warhol Museum exhibits approximately 500 works from its permanent collection at any one time. The permanent collection exhibitions rotate regularly, and there is also an active program of special exhibitions at the Museum. Special exhibitions include on specific areas of Warhol's work and the work of related artists (from Basquiat and Factory photographer Billy Name, to Mariko Mori and Jean Cocteau), as well as exhibitions devoted to specific themes.

The Warhol Museum's permanent collection is comprised primarily of gifts from The Andy Warhol Foundation for the Visual Arts, Inc., the Dia Center for the Arts, as well as individual donations. The Museum is happy to consider donations. Please contact us for further information.

The Museum makes its entire collection available for study by qualified individuals.

Source From :- http://www.warhol.org/

Pop Art - 32 Campbell's Soup Cans

Campbell's Soup Cans (sometimes referred to as 32 Campbell's Soup Cans) is a work of art produced in 1962 by Andy Warhol.

It consists of thirty-two canvases, each measuring 20 inches (510 mm) in height × 16 inches (410 mm) in width and each consisting of a painting of a Campbell's Soup can—one of each of the canned soup varieties the company offered at the time.The individual paintings were produced with a semi-mechanized silkscreen process, using a non-painterly style. Campbell's Soup Cans' reliance on themes from popular culture helped to usher in pop art as a major art movement.

For Warhol, a commercial illustrator who became a successful author, painter, and film director, the work was his first one-man gallery exhibition as a fine artist. First exhibited in the Ferus Gallery of Los Angeles, California, it marked the West Coast debut of pop art.The combination of the semi-mechanized process, the non-painterly style, and the commercial subject initially caused offense, as the work's blatantly mundane commercialism represented a direct affront to the technique and philosophy of abstract expressionism. The abstract expressionism art movement was dominant during the post-war period, and it held not only to "fine art" values and aesthetics but also to a mystical inclination. This controversy led to a great deal of debate about the merits and ethics of such work. Warhol's motives as an artist were questioned, and they continue to be topical to this day. The large public commotion helped transform Warhol from being an accomplished 1950s commercial illustrator to a notable fine artist, and it helped distinguish him from other rising pop artists. Although commercial demand for his paintings was not immediate, Warhol's association with the subject led to his name becoming synonymous with the Campbell's Soup can paintings.

Warhol subsequently produced a wide variety of art works depicting Campbell's Soup cans during three distinct phases of his career, and he produced other works using a variety of images from the world of commerce and mass media. Today, the Campbell's Soup cans theme is generally used in reference to the original set of paintings as well as the later Warhol drawings and paintings depicting Campbell's Soup cans. Because of the eventual popularity of the entire series of similarly themed works, Warhol's reputation grew to the point where he was not only the most-renowned American pop art artist, but also the highest-priced living American artist.

Source From :- http://www.buzzle.com/articles/campbells-soup-and-acrylic-pop-art.html

Designer of the Barcelona Chair

Mies Ludwig van der Rohe 1886 - 1969

Mies Van der Rohe was a contemporary of Le Corbusier and Walter Gropius (the founder of the Bauhaus School), Mies is one of the original instigators of the Modernist Movement.

In the early 20th century modernism and minimalism were coming together in the work of Mies and his peers, while being actively promoted by the Bauhaus, the Deutsche Werkbund, and an organization called the 'Novembergruppe' (of which he was also a member).

1899 to 1903 Mies began his career at only 13 years of age - as a draughtsman in the Aachen stucco decoration workshop. Then from 1904 to 1907 he was an apprentice in the workshop of furniture designer Bruno Paul, while also studying at the school of Arts and Crafts in Munich.

From 1908 - 1911 he, like Le Corbusier and Gropius worked in the architectural offices of Peter Behrens. Leaving Behren's office he started his own architectural practice at only 25.

A few years later, as the First World War came to a close Mies' style was beginning to crystallize. His enthusiasm for Avant Gard ideas was reflected in his associations with the Novembergruppe - and his architectural designs were already showing a fondness for glass skyscrapers.

But it was only in the mid twenties, when he met and formed a personal and professional partnership with Lilly Reich the interior designer, (later to become the director of the Deutsche Werkbund), that he began to design laminated wood furniture, out of his own Berlin Apartment - registering a patent in 1927 for a tubular steel cantilever chair based on that of Mart Stam. The MR chair or 'M20 Chair' as it was called has been described as "a sophisticated and elegant aesthetic response to the earlier, slightly more prosaic uses of the cantilever in contemporary furniture." (Oxford Dictionary of Modern Design pg282). The chair was manufacturer by the Joseph Muller Metal Company, and just like his later designs it required a great deal of handcrafting, and was very expensive to make.

It was this chair that made Mies famous at first, catapulting him into the international limelight. Establishing and cementing his philosophy of 'Refined Comfort', the 'M20', has a simple curved frame with a cane seat - affording sufficient 'give' in the back to almost psychologically mimic the imagined comfort of an old fashioned armchair. Compact, light weight and yet elegant its space saving comfort was immediately a worldwide success.

The famous 'Barcelona X Chair' chair followed in 1929, a design created together with Lilly Reich for the his German Pavilion at the Barcelona International Exhibition. The Barcelona Chair design is said to be derived from his interpretation of an Egyptian royal folding chair and a Roman folding footstool, it came to define the genre, an icon for the era and perhaps the whole modern movement.

His career continued and blossomed first as the director of the Bauhaus school in Berlin 1930-1933 where he produced further innovative design successes - including his cantilevered design of the 'Brno' and the 'Tugendhat' chairs.

In 1931 manufacture of Mies' furniture including the Barcelona Chair was taken over by the Bamberg Metal workshops in Berlin , although there was a marked move away from what had been essentially a craft based mode of production when the production of the production of the cantilever chair was taken over by Thonet in 1932.

Then in the late 1930s as the 2nd world war approached Mies, like many of the Bauhaus teachers, had the foresight to relocate to the US, where he developed a world renowned architectural practice, producing some of his seminal works. Among them the Farnsworth House 1945-1950), the Lake Shore Drive Apartments in Chicago 1951 - 1958. He produced no more furniture after leaving Germany, (and Lilly Reich), although he did redesign the Barcelona Chair of the 1950s to take advantage of new manufacturing techniques and the invention of stainless steel. In 1948 license to produce the Barcelona Chair and a number of his other furniture designs were purchased by the wife of Hans Knoll, (Florence Knoll), whom Mies and Breuer had met while she was working for Gropius. In the 1960s Florence retired from Knoll, but the company continues to produce the Barcelona Chair to this day, together with a matching range of furniture not designed by Mies including the Barcelona Ottoman, Barcelona Daybed, Barcelona Benches two and three seat, Barcelona Sofas, Barcelona Coffee Table, and Barcelona Side Table.

Source :- http://www.barcelonachair.com/Mies.php

History of the Barcelona Chair

Graciously provided by ModernFurnitureClassic.com

Introduction:

Designed by Mies Van der Rohe and his long time partner and companion Lilly Reich the Barcelona chair is mostly misattributed to Mies alone. (ref:1)

It is perhaps difficult to comprehend today, but this icon of modernist style was actually designed in 1928. The chair was created as furnishing for one of Mies's many architectural jewels: The German Pavilion building at the Barcelona World Fair 1929. (ref: 2)

Marketing a country:

The twenty years leading up to the 1928 Barcelona Exhibition were a time of tremendous upheaval for all of Europe. Politically the landscape was changing faster and more dramatically than anyone could ever have imagined: Monarchies fell, revolutions raged, huge numbers of people were migrating from the Eastern block into Western Europe. Accelerating change and diversity propelled the fields of design and technology to reinvent themselves, almost entirely. Huge cultural shifts rocked Europe producing an explosion of artistic and literary creativity.

International trade, although not a new phenomena was accelerated - creating the beginnings of an interdependent global market place.

Governments around the world were straining to stabilize internal political forces, to settle their populace down into productive expansion, lest the political chaos of neighboring countries should spread.

After the first world war the German monarchy fell, and soon the country was swept into a painfully protracted battle between Communist and Fascist factions. The country was flooded with enormous numbers of refugees from the new Bolshevik states. The German government had an almost impossible task ahead of them. They, perhaps more than any other European nation, had to refocus the attentions of their peoples - on economic productivity.

It was in this environment that the plans for the 1928 Barcelona World Fair were conceived. Wanting and needing desperately to present Germany to the world (and to their own people too perhaps) as a stable, vibrant and modern cultural and economic entity.

An Historic Event

The exhibition was an occasion of international importance, attended by government officials from around Europe and of course by the Spanish Royals of the day Alfonso XIII and Victoria Eugenie of Battenberg.

Victoria Eugenie was the grand daughter of Britain's Queen Victoria, who together with her beloved husband, Prince Albert, invented the concept of the World Fair, and in 1851 had been the honored guests of the first International world fair at Crystal Palance in London. Thus her grand daughter's visit to the Barcelona World Fair, would politically have been equivalent to an empirial seal of approval, bestowing tremendous significance on the whole event. (ref: 4)

Choosing Mies and Lily for this task.

For twelve years beginning in 1926 Mies was partnered both personally and professionally with a woman by the name of Lilly Reich. Lilly was a tremendously talented architect and designer known to have worked closely with Mies on his many projects of this period.

From 1912 following a meeting with Hermann Muthesius and his wife Ann, Lilly began working for the Deutscher Werkbund. An organization focused specifically on improving the quality of German design in Industry, and promoting German design and industry to the rest of the world. From 1915 to 1930's she was responsible for designing and organizing a variety of DWB's international exhibitions. Becaming the organizations first female member in 1921. From the time of their meeting in the mid 20's Mies collaborated with her on many of these exhibition design projects - until his departure for the US in 1938. Privately Mies is said to have deferred to Lilly and no one else. Publicly Lily always deferred to Mies. Of course this dynamic makes their respective contributions to joint projects somewhat difficult to trace, However all of Mies' furniture designs and most of his exhibit designs date from the 12 years of their partnership; he never produced any furniture designs before or after this time. (He issued is first patent on a furniture design in 1927 and his last in 1937) (ref: 3)

Their work in the fields of architecture, exhibition design and furniture design, as well as their affiliation to the Deutscher Werkbund made them the perfect choice for this commission.

The German Pavilion

A special building

The purpose of the German pavilion was of course to promote Germany's skills and expertise. Thus it was Mies's gargantuan responsibility to design something that would adequately represent and communicate Germany's technological and creative prowess - for the benefit of this cultivated and influential audience.

This building is perhaps the epitome of modernity. Shockingly modern even by todays standards - it must have looked positively futuristic to the fair's visitors of the day.

The modern design movement of the period was deeply influenced by technological developments, that made materials such as steel and plate glass, increasingly usable and accessible. So it was that Mies sought to construct his Pavilion from these new materials. Vast unbroken expanses of glass and steel, as well as marble and travertine, contrast with one another to produce a linear simplicity that is at once balanced and fascinating.

A special chair

The architecture of this building produced a space well suited to the display of art and design. The work of sculptor Georg Kolbe was showcased here to tremendous effect, and of course so was the Barcelona Chair itself.

The chair that he designed for the Pavilion is said to have been inspired by both the folding chairs of the Pharaohs and the X shaped footstools of the Romans. This regal and formal lineage was quite fitting and was no doubt intentional, affording this modern design an intellectual and cultural weight that would be appreciated by the highly educated audience, and would have been all the more obvious in such a futuristic environment. (ref: 5)

Although the chairs may conceptually have been intended to be thrones for the visiting royals, the general consensus is that they did not actually sit in them. However the Barcelona chair, sometimes referred to as the Pavilion chair, quickly gained a reputation as a design worthy of kings.

Manufacturing techniques and materials

The originals pre dated stainless steel and seamless (ground) welds so the legs had to be bolted together. The leather used in those first examples was pig skin, and the color of the chairs in the Pavilion was ivory. But todays Barcelona chair is not so very different. Mies re-designed the chair in 1950, making use of the newly developed material - stainless steel. This allowed the frame to be formed from a single piece of metal, and so it was that the bolts of the original were replaced by the smooth lines that we know and love today. The pig skin was too expensive for large scale commercial production so it has been replaced by bovine leather.

It went into commercial production almost immediately and in 1953, 6 years after Lily's death Mies licensed the rights of reproduction to Knoll, the current licensed manufacturer of the Barcelona Chair, and trade mark holder of the Barcelona name. (ref: 6) The chair has remained in production ever since, steadily growing in its notoriety and recognition through the years.

Philosophical incongruity:

Philosophically mid century modernists including Mies generally subscribed to the idea that modern furniture should be accessible to the masses, both financially and aesthetically. However the Barcelona chair is an exception to this rule. The materials and construction are too expensive, too labor intensive and therefor too costly to make it widely accessible, and furthermore its regal bearing and associations with royalty gave it an instant cache that has grown rather than diminished with time, and therefor has endeared itself to the educated and wealthy rather than to the masses. (ref: 7)

The Barcelona chair has inspired a tremendous variety of furniture designs. Some staying true to the original - use both the same 'X' style legs, and quilted / piped leather upholstery. Other variations are only subtly informed by the design - tufted leather combining with stainless steel to produce a myriad of shapes and styles.

The high quality leather, is hand sewn, individually stitched and piped, requiring some 28 hours of highly skilled labor to produce.

Although the original rights of reproduction were purchased by Knoll, reproductions of the Barcelona chair are today manufactured by a vast and diverse group of manufacturers. Each varying considerably in their price, quality and even specifics of the design.

Sources and Attributions:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victoria_Eugenie_of_Battenberg

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Exposition

http://www.knoll.com/products/product.jsp?prod_id=577


The African Chair: Marcel Breuer and Gunta Stölzl with Works by Bauhaus Artists



A work from the early years of the Bauhaus, presumed lost for the past 80 years, has been recovered: the African Chair, created by Marcel Breuer in collaboration with the weaver Gunta Stölzl. The only previously known documentation of this throne-like piece of furniture was a contemporary black-and-white photograph. Made of painted wood with a colourful textile weave, this chair embodies the spirit of the early Bauhaus like no other object. It is the first work by Marcel Breuer, who later went on to write design history with his tubular steel furniture. With the support of the Ernst von Siemens Art Foundation, it was possible to secure this legendary and unique work for the collection of the Bauhaus Archive in Berlin.

Even today, the colourfully painted and upholstered oak chair evokes visual associations that are linked to its title; however, this provides no information about the original purpose of the chair. A wide range of hypothetical uses at the time of its inception are possible: the chair could have served as a 'throne' for the Bauhaus director, who defined his role as master of a building lodge in accordance with the self-image of the early Bauhaus. The throne-like construction could also refer to the understanding of architecture as the mother of all arts in classical architectural theory, with the architect as leader and organiser - a role with which Walter Gropius identified all of his life. Equally conceivable is the interpretation of this piece of furniture as a symbolic wedding chair, giving expression to the close relationship between Marcel Breuer and Gunta Stölzl at the time. All of these attempted explanations are filtered from the many ideas and theories that were circulating simultaneously in the early years of the Bauhaus; neither then nor later were any specific comments made regarding the chair. With the emergence of the Bauhaus maxim Art and Technology - A New Unity beginning in 1923, it became a symbol for an era of Bauhaus history that had come to an end. Accordingly, it is a peerless physical manifestation of the complex conceptual universe of the early Bauhaus.

The Bauhaus Archive is presenting this chair within the context of additional works from the early Bauhaus which emphasise its unique significance. The exhibition also includes a representation of Marcel Breuer's Bauhaus Film, which was published in 1926 and attempts to demonstrate the development of furniture design at the Bauhaus - from the African Chair to tubular steel furniture.


Related Link :
http://wwar.com/cgi-bin/artslocator/country.cgi?country=DE

http://www.absolutearts.com/cgi-bin/news/exhibitions-elaborate.cgi?country=DE&state=&town=Berlin

16 March 2008

Barhaus - Architecture


In 1919, the Bauhaus manifesto proclaims that the ultimate aim of all creative activity is a building. This meant that students participated right from the start in building projects. During the directorship of Walter Gropius, the work was mainly in his office, since the setting-up of an architecture class had been delayed. The building department, headed by Hannes Meyer in 1927, enabled an independent training in architecture based on the requirements of the later users. in 1930, the focus under Mies van der Rohe was directed more towards aesthetic aspects.

In 1919, the Bauhaus manifesto proclaims that the ultimate aim of all creative activity is a building. This meant that students participated right from the start in building projects. During the directorship of Walter Gropius, the work was mainly in his office, since the setting-up of an architecture class had been delayed. The building department, headed by Hannes Meyer in 1927, enabled an independent training in architecture based on the requirements of the later users. in 1930, the focus under Mies van der Rohe was directed more towards aesthetic aspects.

All the Bauhaus directors were architects. Their very individual conception of building, however, cannot be jointly coined: quite on the contrary, they must be seen as exponents of strongly divergent architectural concepts. The names Walter Gropius, Hannes Meyer, and Ludwig Mies van der Rohe stand for individually structured educational concepts.

Barhaus - Wall painting workshop


The early interior decoration schemes for villas carried out by the workshop are difficult to classify. The choice of colors and the finish of the design neither correspond with later works, nor do they reflect our general knowledge of color style in the twenties. Despite this sometimes unusual color selection, as in the villas of Gropius and Meyer, the primacy of architecture remains untouched.

Vassily Kandinsky's appointment as master of form focused the interest of the workshop on large-scale mural paintings, independent in composition from the actual wall. Kandinsky's room at the jury-free Art Exhibition in Berlin in 1922 and Oskar Schlemmer's murals in Weimar are seminal pieces within this development.

The late Weimar years and the early Dessau period led to a return to architecture-related decoration. Some designs try to structure rooms with color accents, to create defined areas within one room with the support of color. Walls, floors, and ceilings are dealt with as a single color unit.

Hinnerk Scheper, head of the workshop since 1925, developed a contrasting concept of decoration at the service of architecture. He avoided choosing bright colors and instead used light pastel tones, strengthened by a wide palette of grays. Color differentiation was such that structural architectural elements remained untouched.

His classes were strongly oriented towards craftsmanship. He demanded that a sophisticated color tone scale for oil painting be devised, and laid great importance on the command of different techniques of color shading such as spraying and screening. He considered a founded knowledge of the different components of colors to be just as indispensable as professional know-how in various kinds of rough-casting materials.

Despite this focus on craftsman design, the Bauhaus wallpaper was developed in 1929 as an industrial product. Made for apartments in contemporary housing estates, the patterns were held small and subdued in tone. The wallpaper was so well-adapted to its specific function that it became the most successful Bauhaus product.

Source From :-www.bauhaus.de/english/bauhaus1919/werkstaetten

Barhaus - Workshop For Typography and Commercial Art


In the first years of the Bauhaus at Weimar, typography did not yet play the central role it was later to take on. For Johannes Itten and Lothar Schreyer, calligraphy was essentially an artistic means of expression. At first, practical fields of application remained seldom and were restricted to small, miscellaneous printed matters.

With the appointment of Moholy-Nagy in 1923, who was to introduce the ideas of "New Typography" to the Bauhaus, the situation radically changed. He considered typescript to be primarily a communications medium, and was concerned with the "clarity of the message in its most emphatic form". His influence is clearly visible already in 1923 in the advertising campaign for the large Bauhaus exhibition of Summer 1923. Moholy-Nagy designed the layout for the exhibition publication and further took over the typography of the "Bauhaus books".

From then on, typography at the Bauhaus was closely connected to corporate identity and to the development of an unmistakable image for the school. Characteristic for the design were clear, unadorned type prints, the articulation and accentuation of pages through distinct symbols or typographic elements highlighted in color, and finally direct information in a combination of text and photography, for which the name "Typofoto" was created.

In addition, the consideration of economic factors led to the usage of normed formats, a partly simplified spelling, and more particularly, the abolition of capitalization.

In Weimar, next to Moholy-Nagy, both Joost Schmidt and Herbert Bayer had also been concerned with typography. In Dessau, Bayer took over the newly installed workshop for printing and advertising and rapidly transformed it into a professional studio for graphic design. He intensively developed Avant-garde typesetting and his posters and printed matters show a concern with contemporary themes from the psychology of advertising.

Following his departure from the Bauhaus in 1928, Bayer continued to work at first in Germany, later in the USA, and became one of the most influential graphic designers of the twentieth century.

Joost Schmidt was his successor at the Bauhaus. He introduced a systematic course for the design of lettering and advertising graphics and expanded it to the practice of exhibition design. Examples of the applicability of experimental forms of presentation in architecture, sculpture, photography, and typography were presented in Bauhaus traveling exhibitions and at conventions in and outside Germany. The stands were designed by the advertising workshop.

Source From :-www.bauhaus.de/english/bauhaus1919/werkstaetten

Cabinet-making workshop


No workshop has marked the public image of the Bauhaus as much as the cabinet-making workshop. At first it was directed by Johannes Itten, then in 1921, Walter Gropius became master of form and had part of the furnishings for his buildings realized there.

The "Haus am Horn", built for the Bauhaus exhibition of 1923, conveys one of the earliest and most radical visions of a "new living" style. At the same time, Gropius, in furnishing his director's office without obeying the dictate of traditional forms of representation, created a modern "Gesamtkunstwerk". For the first time, the exhibition presented furniture visibly built along the basic lines of Gropius' Bauhaus concept, according to which each object should fulfill its practical function, be long-lasting, cheap, good-looking, and also well-suited as a prototype for industrial production. Breuer's lattice chair seemed to fulfill Gropius' instructions to the letter: aesthetically pleasant and possessing an inherent analysis of function, this chair-sculpture became one of the most famous designs from the Bauhaus in Weimar, and was even produced there in small handcrafted series.

In 1925 in Dessau, Breuer, now self-appointed head of the workshop, could realize his radical designs with the help of tubular steel. A series of chairs was created, exploiting the technical potentials of the new material, simplifying the idea of a traditional chair, and providing it with a completely new appearance, underlined by the light-reflecting steel surface. This furniture became the symbol of a new living style and the quintessence of the new orientation of the Bauhaus in Dessau.

When Breuer left in 1928, the aims of the workshop changed under new direction: the production of singular pieces with a design typical of the Bauhaus philosophy was replaced by a profile of furniture based on simple materials and made specifically for industrial production. Hannes Meyer invented the appropriate slogan "popular requirements instead of luxury requirements". Model furnishings proposed by the Bauhaus witness the change: Since the spectrum had been numerically reduced, many of the individual pieces had to be multi-functional. Their design intentionally avoided aesthetic richness and, underscored by the usage of specific materials, repressed any hand-crafted effect.

When Mies van der Rohe became director, the workshop was basically closed down, commissions being rare due to the difficult economic situation. He had developed his famous tubular steel and steel strip furniture long before he became director of the Bauhaus. It is their model function which led them to become Bauhaus furniture: students were convinced that they needed these models in order to reach a compositional entity in their designs comparable to that achieved by Mies in his architecture. The last phase of the Bauhaus was marked by prototypes of inimitable aesthetic quality. The work of Mies' students is unthinkable without these products.

Source From :-www.bauhaus.de/english/bauhaus1919/werkstaetten

Barhaus - Pottery workshop


The pottery workshop was situated outside of Weimar, in Dornburg an der Saale. Starting in 1920, small groups of apprentices worked here together with the sculptor Gerhard Marcks as their artistic director and the master potter, Max Krehan. Krehan taught the basics in the crafts of turning, glazing, and firing in the production of simple utility receptacles, whose shapes and decoration remained entirely in the tradition of Thuringian farmhouse pottery. Then, Marcks enticed the advanced apprentices to try their hand at forming free, sculptural receptacle shapes.

In 1922, the journeymen Otto Lindig and Theodor Bogler started to work on the development of new prototypes for utility ceramics which could be produced in small series by slip casting, but which were equally well suited to industrial production. With his teapots, Theodor Bogler devised a totally new principle: they could be mounted together from standardized basic elements and according to a normed construction system. The aim, however, of cooperating with the ceramics industry was confined to slight attempts. In those days, only very few manufacturers were prepared to experiment with the production of unusual pieces from the Bauhaus potters, amongst them, nevertheless, being the Staatliche Porzellanmanufaktur Berlin and the Stoneware factories Velten-Vordamm.

When, in 1925, the Bauhaus in Weimar closed, no further pottery was installed in Dessau. The ceramists who had learned their trade in Dornburg - such as Theodor Bogler, Otto Lindig, and Marguerite Friedlaender - then set up their own workshops or found employment in the ceramics industry.

Source From :-www.bauhaus.de/english/bauhaus1919/werkstaetten

Barhaus - Weaving workshop



From the very first, the weaving workshop was the domain of women. Already since Jugendstil, craft weaving rated as a profession particularly well-adapted to women; the connection between women and weaving, however, goes much further back. Many of the women who came to the Bauhaus chose the weaving section purposefully for a later profession. In addition, the council of masters preferred sending women to the weaving workshop in order to "avoid unnecessary experiments" and be able to reserve the few other workshop places allegedly more suited to men. In the Weimar years of the Bauhaus, only particularly talented or persistent women made the grade to another workshop.

At the beginning, Helene Börner, the crafts director of the workshop, worked with all of the techniques of arts and crafts. Soon, however, the emphasis was concentrated on weaving, the technique offering the best conditions for a coupling with the Bauhaus program. Here, "experimental work" could be performed for industrial manufacture. The products ranged from cushions, blankets, and clothes fabrics, to knotted carpets, Gobelins, and wall hangings. The workshop in Weimar was equipped with a jacquard loom.

The female pupils learned the basic impulses for pattern and color design in the classes of Johannes Itten, Georg Muche, and later, Paul Klee. Although "function" in weaving was one of the magic words, for a long time a strong aesthetic orientation could still be felt. This stood in the way of the required functionality: contrasts between thick and thin or mat and glossy thread were often primarily of aesthetic relevance and posed more of a hindrance in usage than anything else.

In 1927, the workshop was taken over by the "young master", Gunta Stölzl, with less rights, however, than her male colleagues. Stölzl not only entirely re-equipped the workshop in Dessau, she also created an educational course over eight semesters, starting with an apprenticeship and ending with a journeyman's examination, re-rated after 1929 as a Diploma.

The workshop now experimented with synthetic fibers such as cellophane and also rayon, a new thread which at that time revolutionized the entire textile market. Robust steel yarn was developed for the use on tubular steel chairs.

After Stölzl's departure in 1931, Lilly Reich and Otti Berger set new accents. The two last years of the Bauhaus saw the production of three textile albums (in the dimensions of the wallpaper books). Due to the interruption of their product licensing in 1933, however, they never succeeded in reaching the popularity of the Bauhaus wallpaper. The simplicity and unassuming modesty of these textiles stand in strong contrast to the earlier fabrics.




Source From :-www.bauhaus.de/english/bauhaus1919/werkstaetten

Barhaus - Metal workshop


In line with the overall guidelines of the early Bauhaus, the metal workshop in Weimar, which at first ran under the name of gold, silver, and copper forge, taught traditional metal working techniques.

Johannes Itten was the artistic director during the first years, and then in 1922, the experienced silversmith Christian Dell took on the position of master craftsman until 1925. The student's production clearly stood under the influence of Itten's teachings: the main concern in the production of vessels and appliances was the free study of form together with the experimentally acquired knowledge of metallic materials and their possible treatment. When, in 1923, László Moholy-Nagy became head of the workshop, the focus was directed towards more functional aspects. Straightforward vessels reduced to elementary forms in brass, nickel-plated brass or silver were produced. These were indeed conceived for industrial serial production, but realized only as single pieces or in handcrafted series.

This was the period in which the first lamp models were produced, namely the "Bauhaus lamp" by Carl Jakob Jucker and Wilhelm Wagenfeld. In Dessau, the more professional and extensive workshop's equipment was capable of accomodating a more rational serial production of vessels and appliances. Already in 1926, the metal workshop mastered the design and production of all the lighting requirements for the new Bauhaus building. In the following years, it became more and more a "design laboratory" for new lighting equipment and, finally, when several industrial lighting manufacturers took the models into serial production, it achieved the status of one of the most effective and successful workshops at the Bauhaus.

The production of some of the types, such as the Kandem lamps by Marianne Brandt and Hin Bredendieck, was continued for many years after the closure of the Bauhaus.


Source From :-www.bauhaus.de/english/bauhaus1919/werkstaetten